https://phm.znu.ac.ir/ Philosophical Meditations en daily 1 Wed, 21 Jan 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Wed, 21 Jan 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_714777.html The writings of Fatimid Ismaili dāʿīs emphasize the importance of understanding the world and faith by maintaining a proper balance between their ẓāhir and bāṭin. Evincing the latter from the former is known as taʾwīl, or symbolic interpretation. This article analyzes the concept of taʾwīl, focussing on its Ismaili form. It explores the Fatimid affirmation that just as only the Prophet was authorized by God to deliver the tanzīl, only his successors from the Ahl al-bayt have the authority to disclose its taʾwīl. This taʾwīl is then disseminated to the muʾmins by the Imam’s appointees. The article introduces the Asās al-taʾwīl of Qāḍī al-Nuʿmān, one of the preeminent authors of works of this genre, and its Persian translation, Bunyād-i taʾwīl, by al-Muʾayyad fi’l-Dīn al-Shīrāzī. Reporting a tradition of Imam Muḥammad al-Bāqir, Qāḍī al-Nuʿmān wrote his Daʿāʾim al-Islam to elaborate the ẓāhir of the seven pillars of Islam. He explains their bāṭin in his Taʾwīl Daʿāʾim al-Islam. However, he dedicates a special book, the Asās al-taʾwīl, to walāyah, the foremost of Islam’s pillars. The book explores the symbolic meaning of the lives of the Prophets and Imams mentioned in the Quran-i sharīf. This articles analyzes the concept of sacred biography, hierohistory and the spiritual hierarchy (ḥudūd al-dīn) as elaborated in Kitāb Asās al-taʾwīl. It then provides al-Muʾayyad fi’l-Dīn Shīrāzī’s Persian translation from the hitherto unedited Bunyād-i taʾwīl of the section about the birth of Jesus (Q 3:42-48) as an example of this esoteric approach to sacred history. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_714780.html In proving the realization and explaining the mode of being and nature of time, it is customary to employ motion. However, in this discourse, an attempt has been made to elucidate the reality of time based on Mir Damad's triadic relations. Since these relations are proposed by its originator within the framework of mystical literature, the question arises whether it is possible to utilize these relations in explaining the reality of time within other intellectual frameworks or not. it was shown by analytical and descriptive method attempted to demonstrate that due to comprehensive subject of Theoretical Mysticism on the subjects of other rational systems and its inclusiveness towards them, this mode of explaining the reality of time can also be extended to them in accordance with the principles and realities recognized by those frameworks. Therefore, Frameworks of Masha’i, specific gradation were selected to present how the explanation of the reality of time is formulated based on the above perspective in the mystical framework and these two frameworks, allowing for a comparative analysis of this rational issue among these three intellectual systems. For this purpose, first, the effective relationships in establishing the triple ratios were identified. Then these ratios are returned to the three credits of observing beings in the mystical device and by showing these credits in other two devices and the possibility of establishing a correspondence between the facts involved in the introduction of time in the mystical device with those two devices, the desired comparison has been made https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_714781.html The origin of frame problem back to Artificial Intelligence (AI) and first order logic. Although, in the first place this problem was understood at only logical way, more dimensional such as epistemic aspect has been added by philosophers, later. De Sousa (1987: 172) believes that what called frame problem is that: in a situation we do not retrieve some unrelated information from the vast store of information we have. The question is, how do we know when not to do this, unless we have already retrieved this information? His solution is based on the emotional capacity of humans to explain the frame problem. Emotion by salienting our perceptions and reasons restricted our information and because of that we encounter with lessen choice. This answer remains the novel solution and was used by other philosophers. In this article, while examining de Susa's idea, I will present two criticisms on his solution. The first criticism is based on the question, why is a certain emotion activated in a situation? And the second critique is based on the question that when emotions are not consciously active, how can we say that emotions can help us in solving the frame problem? https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_713648.html A system based on hierarchies, which is the narrator of omnipotence the higher beings and poverty on the part of the low beings, based on a comparative approach, can be considered as the common thread of the views of Suhrawardī in the second part of his Ḥikmat al-ishrāq and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite in De Coelesti Hierarchia. Suhrawardī, who considers all the substances of the world of possibility, both incorporeal and material, to be inside the two categories of light and darkness, relying on the illumination wisdom of Fahlvion, founded the system of hierarchy between lights. With the aim of explaining the quality of the transmission of divine revelation from the highest source of its issuance to the human worlds, Dionysius has also described the hierarchy of angels referring to their intellectual and illuminated essence. The results show that in establishing his Wisdom of Illumination, Suhrawardī has a completely philosophical view to the category of light, but the goal that Dionysius pursues is to interpret the Holy Bible in a completely Neoplatonic format with special attention to the thoughts of the late Neoplatonists such as Iamblichus and Proclus. Nevertheless, the discussion of hierarchy is common to both views. This research, the data of which was collected by relying on written sources and analyzed using the documentary (library) method, firstly studies the place of light in the Holy Quran and the New Testament, and then compares the hierarchical order of lights and angels in the thought of Suhrawardī and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_718170.html The topics of epistemology in Islamic wisdom have a close and continuous connection with ontology, it is natural that with the change and development in ontological explanations, a kind of distinction is also included in the epistemological propositions that indicate them, carrying truth and dilution is one of the types of carrying that is used for distinguishing in The explanation of the unity of creation and personal existence has been proposed in the transcendental wisdom. In this way, the relationship between the subject and the predicate is considered in terms of unity in existential perfections and difference in degree and in the manner of truth and dilution. This attitude is in harmony with other components of transcendental wisdom such as the principle of simple truth, interpretation of causation to manifestation, issuance to emergence. , essences to determinations, etc., in passing from the view of unity of formation to personal unity, and it is compatible with both readings. According to the claim of the harmony of religion and reason in discovering reality, the research problem is whether it is possible to present the Qur'anic evidence in addition to the philosophical and mystical foundations in order to carry the truth and truth and provide a better explanation of the narrated texts by referring to it. In this article, it has been shown in an analytical-example way that some Qur'anic verses can be considered to refer to this interpretation, and by accepting this interpretation, a better explanation of these interpretations can be provided. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_714774.html Open-mindedness is one of the most crucial and complex intellectual virtues that has been highlighted in contemporary virtue epistemology. While this virtue is frequently considered the foremost among intellectual virtues, providing a precise explanation of what it is and how to cultivate it has become a significant issue among virtue epistemologists. The main idea presented in this research is that to be open-mindedness, requires having a correct understanding of the concept of this virtue. On the other hand, if someone has a proper understanding of open-mindedness but does not manifest this virtue in practice, they are not mentally open in an intellectual sense. The research method in this research is descriptive and content analysis. The results of this study indicate that open-mindedness requires specific motivations and cognitive characteristics that are essential conditions for acquiring and advancing knowledge. Cultivating and fostering open-mindedness as one of the most essential tools for deep learning is among the primary responsibilities of educators, and its role in helping students overcome intellectual obstacles and acquire knowledge is irreplaceable. A deep understanding of this virtue motivates us to strengthen the cultivation of this virtue within ourselves. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_718040.html Mulla Sadra has experienced three philosophical journeys: the originality of nature, the originality of existence of gradational oneness and the originality of existence of personal oneness. In this article, we analyze the evolutions that have occurred in several important issues of science, which include: "Separation or non-separation between mental existence and science", "issues and problems of mental existence", "the relationship between the soul and its faculties", "the erect estance of forms to soul" and "difference in the stages of known-by-essence and known-by-other. According to the first journey, there is no obvious difference between the mental existence and science, but according to the second journey, there is difference between them and they are not the same. The requirement for this is that unlike mental existence, science is an affair that related to soul, and it is not analogical. The type of answer to the problems that are raised about the mental existence has an important difference in the two journeys. In the first journey, this is achieved by differentiating between the primary and essential predication and common technical predication, but according to the second journey it is achieved by reality and delicacy and according to the third journey, it is achieved by outward and epiphantic form. According to the first journey, instead of faculties, stages can be stated, and according to the last journey, manifestation can be stated. Also, the design of known (known-by-essence, known-by-other and known-by-other-by-other) has experienced fundamental evolutions in terms of three journeys. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_714779.html From the beginning of his creation, man is always under the influence of several factors that distinguish him from others and shape his existence. In Ibn Sina's intellectual system, "primary matter of the body", "temperament of the body", "time of creation of the soul", "self-organizations", "natures" and "reasons" are considered to be the most important factors of differentiation and individuality, which are At the beginning of a person's life, they play a role in his individuality and recognize him as a unique person. Paying attention to the mechanism of the total of the mentioned factors makes it clear that the individual does not have a role in creating these distinctions, and in fact, the distinction between each person and another is realized by the algebraic conditions. In this article, with the descriptive-analytical method, after explaining the algebraic positions of people's distinctions, the problem of divine wisdom and investigating the reason for these unwanted differences, which is one of the consequences of the principle of algebraic distinctions of people, will be analyzed. According to the findings of this research, in Ibn Sina's thought, there is no contradiction between the arbitrary distinctions of people and the coordinates of divine wisdom, and these distinctions cannot be considered as an example of oppression; Because they contain countless wisdoms and it is possible to compensate for the lack of merits in other situations. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_714776.html According to Christian teachings, it is believed that God has a superhistorical and supernatural plan for humanity and the world. Throughout history, this plan unfolds, guided by divine providence and predestined truth. This idea has been explored and explained by various thinkers, such as Augustine in his work "City of God," and other European philosophers in their intellectual and philosophical systems.However, with the advent of the Age of Enlightenment, there was a shift in this historical-theological view, reaching its culmination in the thought of Hegel. While Hegel acknowledges the concept of divine providence in history, influenced by Vico, he rejects the idea of a supernatural God or soul. Instead, he analyzes history in an immanent and eternal manner, emphasizing the unity of the infinite and the finite within the world.In Hegel's framework, the relationship between the world and divine providence does not portray God as solely divine and absolute, while the world remains mysterious and silent. Rather, it presents a vision of a secular, worldly, and human-like God. This perspective removes the external, supernatural, and transcendent guardianship from humanity, placing emphasis on human intellect and wisdom. According to Hegel, humans determine their purpose a priori in history, and their plans unfold within the course of history.It is important to note that this interpretation reflects Hegel's philosophical perspective and may not align with all Christian beliefs or interpretations. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_714775.html Some contemporary epistemologists try to de-authenticate the "Testimony" based on some evidences and arguments and remove it from the scope of justified knowledge. The present article, which is a compilation in the library method, and an analytical method in the evaluation section, tries to examine and criticize one of the arguments raised for the invalidity of the Testimony. This argument, which has made the principle of "Autonomy" the basis of its criticism, does not consider relying on the words of others to be worthy of a mature and wise person. According to these forms, since relying on a Testimony means/requires worshiping and accepting the guardianship of another, it is fundamentally incompatible with the noble element and original human dignity, that is, rational Autonomy. Therefore, the Testimony cannot play a meaningful role in human cognition. Our contention is that not only is the aforementioned argument distorted and incapable of justifying its contention, but one of the essentials of Autonomy is to refer to the opinions of others in the realm of knowledge. Accordingly, this article tries to defend the authenticity of the Testimony while accepting Autonomy as a rational and fundamental principle. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_714773.html Here, we aim to identify the challenges facing compatibilists, who believe that the existence of the chance involved in processes producing the biosphere, which is one of the main pillars of the evolutionary theory, is compatible with guidedness of the life, which is an essential part of theism. Is it possible that God created and guided a world that is full of chance? We put this question under consideration, which is a question that, despite its importance, has received little attention so far, and aim to provide a precise formulation of it. We discuss that to do so we need to consider three main sub-questions:• Are the meanings of chance and guidedness compatible?• How can chance events that are blind and directionless shape a purposeful and guided biosphere?• How can chance events, which are possibilities and could have not occurred, be substantial parts of a designed biosphere?We explain each sub-question in detail and review some of the most important responses offered. We argue that none of those attempts can successfully resolve the tension between chance and guidedness. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_718175.html نسبت ویژگی های ذهنی و مغزی از پرچالش ترین مسائل حوزه فلسفه ذهن می باشد و در این راستا، نظریات مختلفی نیز عرضه شده است. نظریه اینهمانی نوعی و مصداقی مدعی است حالات ذهنی و مغزی اینهمانی دارند. تحقق پذیری چندگانه حالات ذهنی از جمله انتقاداتی است که بر این نظریه وارد شده است. این اشکال، نشان می دهد که اینهمانی ذهن و مغز ممکن نیست زیرا حالات ذهنی به صورت چندگانه محقق می شوند. طرفداران اینهمانی ذهن و مغز کوشیده اند به این اشکال پاسخ دهند، اما استدلال موجهاتی کریپکی نشان می دهد اشکال تحقق پذیری چندگانه در جای خود استوار است. افزون بر آن نشان خواهیم داد که تفکیک میان ربط علّی و اعدادی که در فلسفه اسلامی مطرح شده است، قرینه دیگری بر ضعف این دیدگاه است. علاوه بر اینکه زامبی های فلسفی مطرح شده توسط دیوید چالمرز بر محور دو بعدگرایی معنایی می تواند زمینه نقد بیشتر اینهمانی ذهن و مغز را فراهم آورد زیرا استدلال چالمرز با رد فیزیکالیسم که بنیان اینهمانی ذهن و مغز محسوب می شود، ثابت خواهد کرد که آگاهی پدیداری نمی تواند امری فیزیکی باشد چنانکه نشان داده خواهد شد که اصل های مورد استناد قائلین به اینهمانی همچون اصل سادگی یا بسته بودن نیز در اثبات مدعای ایشان ناکارآمد هستند. این مقاله که با رویکرد اسنادی تنظیم شده است، می کوشد با روش توصیفی و تحلیلی به توصیف، تحلیل و ارزیابی دیدگاه اینهمانی ذهن و مغز بر محور مهمترین نقدهای وارد بر آن بپردازد. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_723439.html In this article, we try to show John Dewey's contribution to Nel Noddings' philosophy of education by focusing on concepts such as education, democracy, ethics, curriculum, school, and emotions. Therefore, after stating the differences and similarities between the thoughts of John Dewey and Nell Noddings on the subject of education, we have examined three central issues. In the first part, we have examined the relationship between ethics and education in Noddings's thought through the lens of Dewey's thought and we show that the moral goal of education is common to both thinkers, but Noddings does not believe in overt moral principles and instead emphasizes emotions. In the second part of this article, we have tried to show that the emergence of a moral person in the educational system as a goal leads to the emergence of a democratic society. Finally, in the third part of this article, we emphasize that the traditional school curriculum is insufficient and incomplete to achieve the goals of Noddings, which were mentioned in the previous two parts, and that the element of emotions and motivations, as well as the role of home and society and social behavior, should be included in the curriculum at the same time. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_714778.html Technological phenomena, with tremendous effect on facilitating human life and increasing its capabilities, align themselves with the processes of human life. One of these phenomena that has become a vital arm of human life is cyberspace, This study tries to provide a way to answer challenges associated with this important interactive phenomenon by asking the central question of what cyberspace is. This effort began with a comparative study of the concept of space in the general perception of physical space and cyberspace and by examining the approach of some thinkers and philosophers to what space is, concluded that the concept of space in its virtual meaning while having common points with the meaning of space in physical terms, has significant differences that arise from the permissible transcendental position in the discussion of cyberspace. The present study leads to the conclusion that the permissible meaning in the term in question is not directly related to its lexical meaning and only development in the permissible meaning in the sense of transcendence can clarify the concept of cyberspace. Thus the dual physical space-cyberspace is not The duality of truth and permissibility in the literature. When the permissible transcendence is considered, cyberspace means the transcended space of the senses, which in the interpretation of Islamic philosophy refers to the imaginary world. transcendence, in the more common sense of Kant, the condition of the possibility of experience, better reflects the position of man in terms of influence, or even the creation of the virtual world. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_714782.html One of the major problems pertaining to human life is alienation. Analyzing the works of philosophers gives us valuable insights into the phenomenon of alienation. The issue with the current research is figuring out what conceptual model for "positive alienation" can be extracted by examining the relationships between various explanations in the viewpoints of Islamic philosophers and thinkers (based on the ontological and epistemological relationships of these explanations).The research methodology is analytical and descriptive. According to Islamic thinkers, there are two interpretations for the concept of "self-alienation": 1. The first explanation [GPA] is positive self-alienation in front of God (man offers whatever he has to God slowly); 2. The second explanation [SPA] is positive alienation against the higher self (going from the lower to the higher self). Two perspectives may be used to analyze the connection between these two interpretations of "alienation": A. The ontological dimension, which is predicated on the idea that God is the ultimate cause and the creation cause of human. B: The dimension of epistemology (the connection predicated on cognitive necessity). Ultimately, the "positive alienation" conceptual model was taken out. The key takeaway is that, given the justifications offered, "Positive alienation" is regarded as acceptable and even encouraged in Islamic philosophy, instead of to being unpleasant. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_718169.html With the theory of "evolution of species", Darwin has in mind the explanation of the mechanism of emergence in all kinds of organisms. As a biologist, he did not seek philosophical conclusions from evolution, but his view later became the basis for the atheistic interpretation of creation by some such as Richard Dawkins. The present research, while summarizing Dawkins' ideas, examines the foundations and intellectual structures governing his set of views with logical measures, and critically analyzes his previous ideas in theological topics.Dawkins' materialistic attitude in the process of cumulative evolution is based on a series of logical and philosophical errors; From the explanation of how the natural order is formed, he expects to explain its why and cause, and it is clear that such an imposition will not go anywhere logically. In general, the lack of systematic and strong logical thinking is observed throughout Dawkins' arguments. Also, due to the influence of empiricism and philosophy based on the originality of matter, he harbors wrong ideas in theology such as "the composition of God from parts, and the materialism of God", which is one of the important causes of his atheistic views. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_718171.html The mimetic form has existed in Islamic philosophy for a long time, and Muslim philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina, when examining the power of imagination, vision, revelation, and the alam-al-mithal, have reached its example, but its cognitive nature has not been taken seriously by them. We find examples of The mimetic form in both science and art, especially poetry that is based on The mimetic form. The existence of the mimetic form in science is very efficient and has made an impact in the advancement of knowledge. Through mimetic forms, poets and artists have been carriers of knowledge. This article aims to examine the nature of mimetic form and determine its characteristics. Discovering the nature of mimetic form and its effectiveness in advancing knowledge will clarify the importance of art in this realm. The research method of this article is analysis and explanation. And the result is that mimetic form is another type of cognition, which is efficient in many fields, including science, in addition to image correspondence. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_718172.html The teleological argument is the most famous argument that proves the existence of an intelligent and purposeful creator for the world by discarding chance and coincidence. Dawkins, believe that this argument is refuted by Darwin's theory. by discarding the possibility of chance and coincidence, it is not possible to prove the existence of a purposeful and intelligent creator. Because there is a third possibility according to which the world can be the result of the gradual evolution of its parts. Against this claim, some theologians have tried to respond to Dawkins's claim by presenting a new version of the teleological argument despite accepting the theory of evolution. Due to the fact that this issue has been less discussed, this research tries to explain some of the most important Presentations of the Teleological Argument, assuming the acceptance of the theory of evolution. Therefore, the fundamenta question is whether by accepting Darwin's theory of evolution, the context for all interpretations of the argument of order is lost; Or still the form or forms of the order argument can be valid with the belief in evolution? What are these forms? After explaining Dawkins's claim, this research deals with the answers that have been given to these problems assuming the acceptance of the theory of evolution. In the end, it is shown that even assuming the acceptance of the theory of evolution, it is possible to present new Presentations of the proof of order. Presentations that do not notice Dawkins' objections. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_718173.html In this research, the relationship between language, truth and morality in humans has been investigated. It has been shown that there are three presuppositions in moral schools: 1. The truth is considered as a correspondence theory of truth. 2. With this presupposition of truth, language is considered as a tool in which moral expressions will be propositions that are justifiable. 3. Man is a being with authority and will, so he is a moral being. Therefore, with these three presuppositions, these approaches have not been able to find a justification for the ethical or non-ethical behavior of humans and animals. As a result, by examining language and truth (truth as Alethia) from from Heidegger's pointof view, we are looking for the fundamental grounds of human morality, and we show that man is moral not because of his will but because he is dwelling in language and traditional. Finally, the following questions will be answered in this research: How can a rule in a tradition be turned into a norm or a moral judgment? Does anyone have the originality to make a deed moral or immoral? Is man a moral being because of his language? Therefore, the question arises: do animals behave ethically? In other words, can they be considered moral beings? https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_718174.html Utilitarianism, as one of the main branches of consequentialism, is a face of normative ethics that provides a criterion for measuring good and bad by emphasizing the results and consequences of actions. One of the criticisms of this approach is that this school of thought may, if necessary, condone wrong actions in order to achieve greater results and benefits. This criticism is also raised in the field of medical ethics and accuses utilitarianism, among other things, of undervaluing the life of one human being in order to achieve the health of many more. Among the different responses to this objection, two of them have been given attention, criticism and review by the authors of this article: first, a theory that focuses on pattern-based reasoning. Proponents of this theory believe that utilitarianism can respond to 'moral dilemmas' by relying on moral patterns such as 'respect for bodily integrity and ownership of the body'. The second response challenges the realism of manifestations and instances of dilemmas and further argues that this criticism (assuming it is accepted) is not only directed at utilitarianism and that other ethical approaches are also entangled in this objection. Proponents of this argument believe that framing examples in unrealistic conditions makes moral judgment difficult and that examples should be examined in real conditions in order to make more accurate judgments about their right or wrong. The authors of this article have critically examined these two arguments using an analytical-descriptive method. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_719850.html The term moral sense was first used by British Moral Philosophers of the 18th century and what they meant by this term is that a person is able to recognize right and wrong actions in a situation through an innate ability. This theory was proposed for the first time by Anthony Ashley Cooper (third Earl of Shaftesbury) in his major work entitled "Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times". Then, Francis Hutcheson revived it in his book entitled "An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue", and David Hume expanded it with some modifications. The common feature of all those who speak of moral sense is that they consider moral knowledge to be related to a faculty called "moral sense", which is separate and distinct from other sources of human knowledge such as reason (for Kant), intuition (for George Moore), religion (for all those who believe in Religious decency and obscenity) as well as the famous and conventional senses that we are familiar with, and through that the necessary data is provided for experimental sciences. But there is a difference of opinion between the defenders of this theory about the details and how this sense works. even though there is a significant connection between the claims of these three philosophers, there is an important difference between their views. This study has tried to describe the classical views about moral sense, criticize them and explain the difference between them. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_719851.html Since the core of Hegel's philosophy is the Absolute Spirit, he explores its manifestations in history through art, religion, and philosophy. The content of philosophy, which expresses the manifestations of the Absolute Spirit, is something that religion presents in an allegorical form. With the evolution of religion and its integration into philosophy, Hegel seeks both a rational justification of authentic religious teachings in the modern world and demonstrates the role of religion in the stages of the Absolute Spirit’s self-awareness. The main issue of this research is the critical examination of how religion becomes rationalized (in accordance with modernity) within Hegel's philosophical system. The key findings of this research, which was conducted using an analytical-critical method, are as follows: Only absolute religion, in harmony with absolute philosophy, shapes self-awareness as a self-conscious spirit. According to Hegel, only Lutheran Christianity, with its doctrines of incarnation and the Trinity, can reconcile the historical particularity of the Spirit with its absoluteness. Hegel's rational interpretation of Christianity leads to the union of religion and modern reason, secularization of religion, a focus on rationality, and the negation of rituals, resulting in a religion fully aligned with and serving modernity. This conception has drawn significant criticisms: Hegel’s lack of awareness of the final revealed religion—Islam—and his unfounded preconceptions about the completeness of Lutheran Christianity, the irrationality of the infinite incarnating in the finite, the weakening of religious institutions, the stripping of religion of its sacredness, and its reduction to a secular entity. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_719852.html In Islamic philosophy, the issue of abstraction and detail, or depth and emergence in knowledge and consciousness, is clearly found in the works of Mulla Sadra, and after him, the commentators of his philosophy have expanded this issue. Mulla Sadra has used these terms in Theory of Self-Revelation of the Soul which is his final reading in the problem of cognition and consciousness. The equivalent of these terms in Jung's psychology can be considered conscious and unconscious or conscious and unconscious. Although Jung's and Mulla Sadra's theories have been proposed in two different fields, these theories can influence each other in some cases. From the points of commonality, we can refer to the concepts used in these theories and how to explain the order of emergence and consciousness in these theories, and among the differences between these two theories, we can consider the material or abstract issue of science, the explanation of the unconscious order in Jung's theory and or the order of batun and ajamal in the theory of Mulla Sadra. These points of difference arise from the foundations of each of these two thinkers, https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_719853.html Mulla Sadra, by proposing the idea of the multiplicity of human types, believes that human nature changes at every moment. Pluralism, because it returns the differences to the nature of humans, can mean the complete separation of the enlightened beings of Shafi'in, such as the Ahl al-Bayt, peace be upon them, from ordinary people who have inferior types. Hence, intercession by this theory seems out of reach. The issue is how intercession will be meaningful and true under this theory and according to the principles of transcendental wisdom. The findings of the research show that intercession can be depicted in accordance with Mulla Sadra's views in an existential and developmental manner and with criteria for generalization or allocation to different types of human beings, explained and in accordance with Mulla Sadra's existential philosophy. The following article, with descriptive-analytical method and referring to Mullah Sadra's works, tries to show Mullah Sadra's interpretation of how it is possible to realize intercession. In this version, Shafi, according to Mashfu'la's ability, creates enthusiasm and new knowledge of Mashfu'la, and as a result, promotes his existence and removes his torment or raises his level of existence. Realization of intercession in the hereafter or its impossibility for some people is completely an existential and non-credible matter and attributed to the homogeneity of human types with intercessors or their non-existence in this existential rank. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_719855.html "Among the hadiths that have led to challenging discussions are those related to Tiynat (human nature). The primary issue with these hadiths is their apparent incompatibility with human free will and divine justice. Islamic scholars have each attempted to resolve these difficulties and have offered various justifications. One of the individuals who endeavored to address this issue and stated that Tiynat narrations do not conflict with free will of human in the world, is Mullā Ṣāliḥ Māzandarānī, the commentator on the valuable book Al-Kafi. He attempted to resolve this issue by stating that human souls were tested before creation and were then granted bodies with either pure or impure Tiynat based on their performance. However, upon examining his view and the explanations he provided under each hadith, several problems become evident in his theory. These include inconsistencies with his philosophical school, internal contradictions within the theory itself, and inconsistencies with hadiths from other chapters. Furthermore, this theory contains ambiguities that require answers." https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_719856.html Since Muslim philosophers have brought philosophy to you as a means of self-fulfillment, the examination of "human nature" is doubly important for them. According to the school of perfectionism, human happiness depends on him perfecting his inherent characteristics - or special characteristics. It is necessary for this that first the special elements of human nature - or the characteristics specific to him - are correctly known. Something that is still neglected in contemporary research. This article has given an answer to two questions (1) what the special nature of human being from their point of view is and (2) the difference between their views. The purpose of this theory is to write a better knowledge of anthropology and self-fulfillment of these philosophers. This goal has been evaluated with the method of critical, propositional and comparative analysis. The result is that the philosophers in question have agreed on "intellect" as a special characteristic of humans, and they have serious and deep differences with people regarding the details of this belief. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_721267.html Intuitive knowledge, as an important and controversial issue in Islamic philosophy and as one of the subjects of philosophical research, has always had its supporters and opponents, as during the last ten years, numerous works in this field have been presented to the scientific community; However, in order to discover the emptiness and shortcomings of the works, to discover the possibilities and fields for future researches and studies, as well as to draw a general picture in these works and studies, a systematic review of these researches is necessary. In this regard, the aim of the present research is to present a general picture of the studies conducted in the field of intuitive knowledge in two parts of qualitative and quantitative analysis. The present writing method is also: systematic review and qualitative meta-analysis of articles that have been published in the last ten years and have been indexed in two Internet sites, Normex and the comprehensive portal of humanities. Also, the findings of the present work include: the researches carried out in the field of intuitive knowledge can be classified under five categories : "the ratio of intellect and intuition"; "functions of intuition"; "components of intuitive knowledge"; He classified "intuitive knowledge criteria" and "reliability and trustworthiness of intuition". Results: The review of the articles in this field indicates that most of the researches in this field have a positive aspect and few articles deal with the problem of intuition with a critical approach. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_721729.html The purpose of this article is to analyze how to analyze philosophy with Sadra as an existential-life problem? The hypothesis of the article emphasizes the possibility that philosophy with Sadra is in relation to being "being" or trying for a specific kind of meaning, and therefore, the first steps of implementation and moving in the direction of exaltation are the exaltation. This is in person in person, and in the way of the mental discovery of meaning and objective realization of perfection. Finally, philosophy encompasses such a person that human life is equal to philosophy, and the fact that philosophy must be known and the philosopher must only know how to live. This does not only imply "educational" aspect that is in the constant relation between consciousness, freedom, facilities, and selection, which is the type of individual as the realization of the individual world, and that the nature of living is the successive efforts to fulfill the personal world. Rather, it also implies a "nurturing" aspect that if the essence of philosophy is existential-life tendency; It is inevitably focused on the existential coordinates and living conditions of the audience. This educational relationship will eventually become a profound and profound commitment. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_721730.html In the analysis of predicative singular proposition, Aristotle considers the copula as a word, which the speaker uses it to refer to the “meaning” of the relation between the subject and the predicate. “Copula” and “Copulative existence” have been the concern of Muslim philosophers since the beginning of Islamic philosophy history. Avicenna, Suhrawardi, Averroes and al-Tusi’s point of views to copula are “linguistic”. “Ontological” looking to copula is found in Mirdamad's manuscripts, but MullaSadra has completely established his philosophy in explaintion of creation based on this perspective. This point of view is obviouse in Allameh Tabataba'i's adherence to MullaSadra method and explaination. This descriptive and qualitative research is looking for starting point of ontological concern about copula and analyze of its transition from linguistic to ontological. The result of this study shows that ontological perspective has emerged between the 7th and 10th centuries AH. The root of this emergence, in addition to the literal translation of non-Arabic texts into Arabic, has been the thinker’s paradigm and assumptions. It is necessary to keep the copula and copulative existence analyzes limited to a language game to prevent it from changing it from what it really is, affected by philosophical discussions. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_721731.html With his particular approach to the truth of science and knowing its existence, Sadra's theory of subsistence of issuing has better and more uptodate explanatory power than other perceptual theories This fundamental turn in expressing the truth of science has ontological, anthropological and epistemological consequences. In this article, we intend to express the epistemological consequences, criticize and evaluate them;among these consequences, we can mention the problem of matching mind and object, the occurrence of errors in perceptions, and the relativization of knowledge in this theory. Although Sadra considers the similarityand correspondence of perceptual forms with their relations as assumed or selfevident, it seems that the theory does not have enough ability to prove or justify the complete compatibility of perceptual forms with external objects, ultimately it can prove the compatibility between perceptual and external forms that is useful for interaction and understanding between people. From Sadra's statement regarding the number of external objects as a necessary condition and the support of higher principles as a supplementary condition, a guarantee for compatibility can be inferred. Also, the existential strength of the soul as the subject of perceptual forms, by reducing the possibility of error in perceptions, can guarantee better and more exellent matching of perceptual forms with its standard. Since the theory of subsistence of issuing the circle is active and the existential strength and weakness of the self plays a vital role in how to achieve perception, this theory seems to imply a kind of skeptical relativity in knowledge. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_722768.html A comprehensive framework called “ethics” is divided into two parts: “ethics” (also referred to as the “doctrine of virtue”) and “right/justice” (also known as the “doctrine of right”). In The Metaphysics of Morals, Kant argues that the “categorical imperative” determines the duties and obligations of moral agents. These obligations, or constraints, can be categorized as either internal, as in the “duties of virtue,” where “motive” or “incentive” is significant, or external, as in the “duties of right/justice,” where such motives are irrelevant. In both cases, the “categorical imperative” establishes these moral constraints. According to Kant, duties related to ethics, or virtue, are internal and cannot be externally enforced, unlike the “duties of right/justice.” The “duties of virtue” are concerned with moral law and the internal constraints of the agent(s), whereas “juridical” or “legal duties,” which correspond to the duties based on “right/justice,” relate to the external actions of moral agents and are subject to external constraints, particularly legal restrictions. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_723159.html The current research is based on the ontological explanation of intention and its role in identifying the partial actions of man, and tries to explain the quality of its influence in human life based on the foundations of the philosophical system of Transcendental Wisdom; A system that, by emphasizing the theory of the originality of existence, provided the ground for explaining the applied unity of existence and then the collective and applied unity of the human soul - which is the basis of the deepest level of analysis of the category of intention. In order to answer the research problem, with descriptive-analytical approach, first the effect of intention in action, action in the present and both in essence are expressed. In the following, intention is introduced as the first appearance of human free will, and finally, the discourse of intention is explained as the discourse of passing from the self bound to the absolute self. The result is that paying attention to the intention and focusing on it is actually a voluntary effort to reach the deeper and truer layers of the human soul and to express the layered inner self of the Alavi and Saehmand. In other words, the main effect of intention in human life is to lead him to think about the meaning, end and purpose of things, which is realized through the process in the layers of his transcendental ego, and this process causes him to be actualized and more self-aware. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_723160.html This article explores and analyzes Theodore Drange's reading of the "problem of divine hiddenness," also known as the "problem of nonbelief." According to Drange, unlike Schellenberg's interpretation, the focus of nonbelief is not on the existence of the God of Abrahamic religions but on the "salvific truth" as it is believed within a particular religion/faith. For instance, in evangelical Christianity, doctrines such as the Trinity, Incarnation, and Atonement are part of the salvific truth (the Gospel message). Consequently, according to religious exclusivism, the "problem of nonbelief" asks how God could allow the vast majority of humanity tos remain deprived of the “Gospel message”—and thus of divine guidance, and eternal salvation—simply due to the "accident of birth" into non-Christian families. If the God of evangelical Christianity truly existed, He would employ methods such as direct implant, miraculous heavenly voices, the inclusion of clear prophecies in the Bible, and other means to ensure that all people believe in the Gospel message. Therefore, it is likely that such a God does not exist. Drange discusses and refutes responses to the "argument from nonbelief," including the free-will defense, the divine testing defense, the afterlife defense, and the skeptical theism defense. Drange’s main point revolves around the dependence of "guidance and eternal salvation" on the "accident of birth," which remains a complex issue in religious soteriology that even Plantinga's responses fail to resolve. Thus, Drange’s argument will only find a reasonable answer through the abandonment of religious exclusivism and the acceptance of religious pluralism. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_727577.html The present study aims to investigate the lexical network related to "the first chief", one of the main terms in Farabi's works, and has been conducted using a descriptive-analytical method. In several of his works, Farabi has sought help in defining "the first chief" from the central concept in prophecy, namely the concept of revelation. In addition, in Tahsil al-Saadah, he equated terms such as "imam", "philosopher", "malek" and "Waze Al-Nawamis" with "the first chief" and provided a definition of each without mentioning revelation. The question is what are the semantic relationships between the terms in the conceptual network of the first chief and for what purpose is it expressed? Results: 1- The four characteristics (acquiring theoretical and intellectual virtues, achieving practical virtues and the power to create them in others) that are included in the definition of the first chief and other terms are the chain of relationships between these terms. 2- "Absolute" is an adverb indicating the perfection of virtue and the highest level of meaning of each word in terms of concept. This adverb is one of the connecting concepts between all the words. 3- "First President" is the central term in this network. 4- The purpose of presenting this conceptual network is to provide semantic support for the first president. 5- The equality of these concepts with the first president is not on the same level, but the word "malek" has a priority over the others in terms of its association with revelation in the definition. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_727579.html According to the conventional approach, the subject and the predicate in propositions are different in terms of nature, because they consider the nature to be the object of plurality, while they are united with each other in terms of existence. Also, the model of originality of contrastive existence and the model of originality of existence of a special formation will not reach a result other than integration, and union is not only not imageable in these two models, but based on the principles of Sadra's wisdom based on the reading of special formation, union does not occur absolutely. Therefore, based on a special doubt, the originality of existence requires knowing the existence of the subject and the predicate, and the truth of existence is also a single matter that does not have a plurality in the essence of existence, but has multiple manifestations. The content of the following article is: everything that is included in the text in the context of active scientific perception, is analyzed into two concepts in the mind, and the mind is able to connect or separate those two concepts. For that reason, the transfer between two external entities is not against each other, but it is a single truth from which an example for the subject and an example for the predicate is obtained in the rational analysis of evidence, and the transfer between the two is not based on the union of two external entities, but only analytical. which tells about external objective truth. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_727580.html Essential doubt has been a challenging issue in Islamic philosophy. Avicenna rejected essential doubt and Sheikh Ishraq proved it. Although Mulla Sadra believed in the originality of existence, his words about essential doubt are initially inconsistent. Mulla Sadra's followers have also spoken differently on this issue. Although Sabzevari accepted the doubt in essence, he considered the abstract individual of essence to be an intrusive existence. Allama Tabataba'i considered the evidence to prove the doubt in essence insufficient and stated that this evidence only proves the stronger existence of the effect in relation to the cause. Ashtiani first says that Mulla Sadra's statements are not inconsistent and that he believed in doubt in essence in all cases. Secondly, this doubt in essence is a consequence of doubt in existence and Ashraf's argument of possibility proves without any problems the existence of abstract individuals for the specific essence. Thirdly, the abstract individual is the individual in essence for the essence, not an intrusive existence for it. In this article, we conclude through an analytical and descriptive method that the carrying of truth and subtlety is not specific to the superior existence of the effect in relation to the cause, and that the rational existence of a specific nature is both the specific existence of that nature and, since it possesses all the perfections of that nature in a supreme manner, it is an example of the carrying of truth and subtlety. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_727581.html The Peripatetics advocate the concrete composition of potentiality and actuality in the essence of corporeal bodies.Suhrawardī, however, posits the simplicity and monadic nature of bodily reality.In the Sadrian framework, only a singular existent is actualized in external reality thereby resolving the duality of potentiality and actuality through their ontological unity, resulting in a unitary composition of matter and form.Heidegger offers a distinct interpretation of matter and form and their unification, conceptualized as the dialectic of earth and world.At first glance, the divergence between the Peripatetic and Heideggerian perspectives becomes evident.While Suhrawardī’s rejection of the concrete composition of bodily reality suggests an affinity with Heidegger’s thought, such a comparative alignment is not without challenges.According to both Ṣadrā and Heidegger, duality is realized only through its grounding in ontological unity.Engaging this issue is essential for understanding the natural world and its implications for defining the relationship with modern natural sciences, as the latter focus on bodies and objects without interrogating their metaphysical reality—a task beyond the scope of the sciences themselves. This article employs a descriptive-analytical methodology, drawing on library sources, to conduct a comparativestudy of potentiality and actuality in Islamic philosophy and the dialectic of earth and world in Heidegger’s thought. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_728432.html This article analyzes Robert Brandom’s view of observational knowledge by focusing on his fundamental concepts such as the space of reasons and the game of giving and asking for reasons. Drawing on Wilfrid Sellars’s ideas, Brandom explains observational knowledge as a two-tiered process involving reliable differential responsive dispositions and normative commitments embedded in linguistic practices. A feedback-oriented level of perceptual engagement is described as a capacity shared by humans and other intelligent beings. However, at a distinct level, it is rational and logical beings who participate in language games, thereby rendering the entirety of their perceptual uptake conceptual and thus normative. The article seeks to offer a more holistic perspective on intentionality by highlighting the entanglement of these two levels and explaining how they mutually inform one another. It emphasizes that linguistic interactions, as part of discursive practices, account for knowledge through reasoning and the social exchange of reasons. It argues that observational claims must not only reliably emerge from differential responsive tendencies but also be integrated into inferential relations with other beliefs and claims. Within this normative space, individuals monitor and assess their own and others’ sets of commitments and entitlements under the governance of inferential norms. As a result, this view regards knowledge as a normative and social status arising from participation in discursive interactions, and it explains it without direct reference to traditional epistemic notions such as truth, justification, or epistemic warrant. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_728841.html Classical or Cartesian cognitive science views cognition as a symbolic computation and something within the mind, a cognition that has no relation to the environment, the body, and human praxis, and revolves around the manipulation of representations. As some of the gaps and shortcomings of this approach became apparent, the body, the environment, and the stream of embodied cognition (EC) gradually became prominent in the second cognitive revolution. Although embodied cognition in its various forms has guided the mainstream of research in cognitive science for several decades and has overcome the Cartesian approach and cognitivism as a new paradigm, there is no consensus on its essential gravity, and the common ground of its different approaches is still a matter of dispute. This essay seeks to question the common ground of the various types of EC as the aggregator of its different approaches under one idea. What is it that characterizes an approach in cognitive science as embodied and distinguishes it from Cartesian approaches? https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_729564.html When a person, despite their better judgment and consideration of all relevant factors, intentionally and freely performs (or does not perform) an action, this behavior is classified as weakness of will, or akrasia. This issue, which has a long history in philosophy and was also of interest to the Greeks, was revived in contemporary philosophy with Davidson's (1970) article on the subject. Davidson ignored the role of emotions in justifying weakness of will, but people after him have tried to attribute a role to emotions in Davidson's picture of weakness of will. To provide a framework for understanding such actions, Christine Tappolet argues that the causal and justificatory role of emotions should be regarded as part of the reasons (as part of the rational process, not in opposition to it) that we invoke for acting. However, there are cases, such as exceeding the speed limit or smoking, where emotions alone cannot sufficiently justify such actions. This article introduces psychological reactance as a complementary framework for understanding weakness of will. Psychological reactance refers to an individual’s response to restore their perceived freedom after it is threatened. This concept offers a compelling explanation for akratic actions, particularly those classified as immoral or as examples of so-called "cold" akrasia. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_729565.html This article provides an in-depth and critical examination of the interplay between faith and knowledge from the perspectives of Islamic philosophy, mysticism, and theology. With an innovative approach, it explores the role of faith as a “divine light” in enhancing human cognitive processes. The study argues that faith, beyond being a mere belief, establishes a robust foundation for liberating rationality from relativism and radical skepticism, thereby creating a coherent framework for attaining authentic knowledge. By expanding cognitive horizons, faith facilitates access to intuitive and heart-centered wisdom, acting as a cognitive filter that removes barriers such as hedonism and materialism from the path of epistemic pursuit. Furthermore, the article introduces an integrated model, “Dynamic Interaction Theory”, to analyze the synergistic relationship between faith and knowledge across diverse scientific and philosophical domains. The findings not only offer novel insights into the faith-knowledge nexus but also propose actionable implications for moral philosophy, education, and social sciences. This research bridges traditional Islamic thought with modern cognitive science, advocating for a holistic epistemology that harmonizes divine illumination with empirical inquiry. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_729566.html The present study, using a comparative method, examines the ontological aspects of sin in the thought of Augustine and Abu Hamid al-Ghazali. Comparing the views of these two great thinkers of the Christian and Islamic worlds on this issue sheds light on the extent of the effects of sin as a great obstacle to human happiness in various areas of his existence. In fact, what sin is existentially, considering its instances, under what category it falls, and what the divisions and relationships between the types of sin are, is important both theoretically and practically. An examination of the ontological category of sin in the thought of Augustine and Al-Ghazali shows that in the view of both thinkers, sin is realized not only in the members and organs of man, but also in the inner and outer parts. In this regard, one of the divisions of sin in the view of both thinkers is the division of sin into external and internal sins. In addition, Augustine and Al-Ghazali have attempted to classify instances of sin in other ways. The relationship between the types of sin in the eyes of Augustine and Al-Ghazali shows that in the eyes of both thinkers, venial sins are the cause of venial sins. Based on what is obtained from the semantics of sin, the basis of the concept of "sin" in the eyes of Augustine and Al-Ghazali is "turning away from God towards oneself," which appears in the ontology of sin in the instance of self-supremacy. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_729567.html Owens and Fodor agree that folk psychological explanatory states do not supervene on the physical. However, Fodor argues that this does not hold for theoretical psychology, which relies on causal explanations; these explanations must somehow supervene on the physical. Owens utilizes this agreement to critique Fodor, arguing that propositional attitude-based psychological explanations are not causal explanations, and therefore, the hybrid causal/representational model should be abandoned. Conversely, Saidel demonstrates that psychological explanations involving propositional attitudes can be causal, suggesting that the ambiguity in the application of “causal powers” (in their broad and narrow senses) is the source of this disagreement. Butler refutes the existence of broad causal powers, arguing that their acceptance necessitates that individuals with identical intrinsic properties could possess different causal powers, contradicting the supervenience of causal powers on intrinsic properties. Consequently, the tension between the individuation of propositional attitudes via broad content and their individuation via causal powers remains unresolved, and Saidel’s argument fails to address this tension. Finally, this paper critically examines the viewpoints of Owens, Butler, and Saidel, and offers a concluding synthesis. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_729568.html Professor Javadi Amoli is a contemporary thinker who has presented one of the most refined and coherent systems of religious epistemology. In his view, religion is not confined merely to the enclosure of naql (Quranic verses and narrations), nor are rational achievements considered purely human and unrelated to religion. Instead, Professor Javadi Amoli posits a theory that situates reason alongside naql, not in opposition to religion. According to his theory, if authentic naql is "what God has sent down" (mā anzalahu Allāh), then demonstrative reason is "what God has inspired" (mā alhamahu Allāh), and both are sources of religious knowledge. This article, written using an analytical and library-based methodology, explains the presuppositions and arguments of Javadi Amoli while examining his intellectual system regarding the position of reason and naql from two perspectives: one that identifies the potentials and strengths of his thoughts, and another that considers their limitations and weaknesses. In summary, the notions that the "reality of revelation" can never be fully captured by either rational or traditional scholars, and that various types and meanings of reason are recognized, are considered among the potentials of his thought. However, his encyclopedic expectation of naql is identified as a limitation of his intellectual framework. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_729569.html Here is the exact English translation of the provided Persian text, without summarization or omission: "The present article, titled '**Explaining the Quality of Transversal Gradation in the Material World, Its Effects and Consequences**,' is an effort towards presenting a proper explanation of transversal gradation (*tashkīk-i 'arḍī*) in the material world, which has not been adequately addressed thus far in Islamic philosophy and Transcendent Theosophy (*ḥikmat-i muta'āliyah*). For this purpose, initially, conceptology of this term has been undertaken, and reliance has been placed on a new argument that, overall, can prove the transversal gradation of existence, especially in the material world. Subsequently in the article, with the help of the views of some philosophers, an attempt has been made to tangibly understand transversal gradation concerning the material world, and after despairing over existing formulations, the discussion on this matter is completed by presenting the idea of the analogy of light refraction in a prism. Inspired by what can be inferred from the mentioned analogy, the transversal gradation of existence in the material world has been explained in philosophical language. For this purpose, transversal gradation in the material world has been interpreted and critiqued using various criteria, foremost among which is the criterion of gradation based on '**energy**'. Finally, by stating the effects and fruits of this discussion, the content of the article comes to an end." https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_731117.html This research explores a central epistemological dilemma in contemporary philosophy of religion, namely the crisis of inference resulting from the application of philosophical hermeneutics in the field of theology. The main issue is how to infer stable doctrinal propositions from religious texts, while philosophical hermeneutics emphasizes the radical historicity of understanding and the fluidity of meaning. This article, using a critical analytical method, defines its goal not to refute hermeneutics but to reinterpret and explain the epistemological capacities of theological rationality in the face of this crisis. In this regard, first the foundations of philosophical hermeneutics and its consequences in the thought of some religious neo-thinkers were analyzed. Then, in a positive move, the theological model of ijtihad was reconstructed and explained as an original methodology. This model is based on the dialectic between fixed governing principles such as the rule of deterministic reason and variable elements and the domain of ijtihad. The effectiveness of this model in resolving apparent conflicts was demonstrated through a philosophical case study of the "Problem of Evil." The key finding of the research is that theological rationality itself has a dynamic and coherent framework for valid inference that can balance adherence to principles and responsiveness to the exigencies of the times. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_731367.html The concept of barzakhī perfection of the soul (post-mortem perfection) in Islamic philosophy—particularly within Transcendent Theosophy (al-ḥikma al-mutaʿāliyya)—has been subject to multiple interpretations by Mullā Ṣadrā and his followers. These interpretations can be classified under two major approaches. The first is the interpretation of barzakhī perfection based on substantial motion (al-ḥaraka al-jawhariyya). To resolve the internal tensions of this thesis, various strategies have been proposed, including: (1) positing countless human faculties; (2) asserting a longitudinal ontological relation between barzakh and the terrestrial world; (3) denying the dependence of motion on prime matter (hayūlā); (4) positing a specific kind of body for the soul; (5) positing a particular type of prime matter; and (6) interpreting motion as an analytical accident. Through an analytical–critical approach, this study demonstrates that each of these strategies faces fundamental problems such as equivocation, petitio principii (begging the question), internal inconsistency, and reductionism. The second approach interprets barzakhī perfection through the doctrine of tajaddud al-amthāl (renewal of similitudes), a mystical framework that this article critically examines and deems inadequate. Ultimately, the study proposes three alternative solutions: (1) the perpetual attachment of the soul to the body, based on a reconstruction of Madras Zunūzī’s view on bodily resurrection; (2) the expansion of latent malakāt (dispositional perfections) within the rational soul; and (3) a hybrid approach combining the soul’s continual attachment to the body with the expansion of malakāt. These three approaches offer a new framework for explaining the problem of barzakhī perfection within Islamic philosophical thought. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_731369.html The issue of happiness has always been one of the most fundamental philosophical concerns across various intellectual traditions. Mulla Sadra’s Transcendent Philosophy, as one of the richest Islamic philosophical systems, offers a distinctive conception of happiness grounded in the perception of existence, the actualization of theoretical intellect, and inner spiritual journey. In recent decades, a new approach in philosophical studies, termed "philosophy as a way of life," has emerged, centered on the ideas of philosophers like Pierre Hadot and John Cottingham, emphasizing a return to philosophy as a mode of living and existential transformation. This article, employing a descriptive-analytical method, aims to re-examine and analyze the concept of happiness in Sadraian philosophy through the conceptual framework of philosophy as a lived practice. The findings indicate that in Sadraian philosophy, happiness is an existential, gradual process linked to rational self-realization. This understanding, when viewed through the lens of philosophy as a way of life, can take on a new, effective, and accessible form for contemporary individuals. Thus, Sadraian philosophy can be regarded not merely as a theoretical system but as a form of lived wisdom aimed at guiding humanity toward existential perfection and inner tranquility. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_731370.html This article adopts a descriptive-analytical approach and draws on A.P. Martinich’s theological interpretation of Hobbes’s system of thought to reexamine his theory of sovereignty within the framework of Christian theology. Focusing on two central theological concepts—irresistible divine power and covenant theology—it argues that these ideas are implicitly embedded in the foundations of Hobbesian sovereignty. The first part of the article, through a three-step analysis, explores the hypothesis that Hobbes’s formulation of sovereignty is informed by the notion of God’s irresistible power. It is first demonstrated that natural law, in Hobbes’s thought, is not merely a moral recommendation but carries binding force and presupposes a divine lawgiver. Next, an analysis of the notion of obligation reveals its legal and theological dimensions within Hobbes’s intellectual framework. Finally, the article shows how irresistible divine power functions as a guarantor of obligations, aligning the fear-inducing authority of the Hobbesian sovereign with that of the invisible God. The second part examines the theological logic underlying Hobbes’s seemingly secular theory through an analysis of covenant theology as the application of concepts and frameworks derived from the Holy Scripture by the philosopher and the concept of the representative person. It highlights Hobbes’s innovative engagement with the covenant tradition by synthesizing the two theological motifs—irresistible power and covenant theology—within his theory of sovereignty https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_731371.html Achieving artificial intelligence at high levels of simulation, efficiency and efficiency is the most important challenge in today's world, which has attracted the attention of various scientific, technological, philosophical, legal, etc. communities. Achieving any level of artificial intelligence technology creates requirements for humans that will affect the future life of humans and consequently related fields of knowledge such as ethics, sociology, governance, etc. Strong artificial intelligence is a level of artificial intelligence technology that is in a way the ultimate goal and destination of artificial intelligence, and proving or rejecting the possibility of its realization sets different paths for decisions about artificial intelligence. Strong artificial intelligence claims that the possibility of realizing true sentience for artificial intelligence is definitely not ruled out, and we can hope that humans will achieve such technology in the future. In the scientific-philosophical atmosphere that dominates the West, this claim, while being seriously rejected by some, is supported by others. In Sadrian philosophy, there are indicators for the realization of true mindfulness, which, paying attention to them, casts doubt on the realization of strong artificial intelligence and rejects it. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_727578.html The purpose of this article is to investigate the central role of the etymology of the concept of God in the natural theology of the late Stoics, a theology that does not only deal with the details and physical aspects of cosmic processes, but also focuses on the overall coherence, teleology and providential plan that governs it. By reinterpreting the existing religious beliefs, the Stoics paved the way for what they thought was real religion, that is, they always followed their pantheistic and hallozoic conception of the universe, from etymology to discover the various manifestations of God under various titles such as; Intellect, nature, pneuma, etc. used in the world. Therefore, the main claim of this article is to show that in the Stoicism of the late period and even before that, etymology was not simply a study of the history of words, but rather etymology had a triple role in the following way: Firstly, it was a means of worshiping God, because for Stoics, studying the names of gods was equivalent to searching for God, secondly, it was a method of interpreting poetry, and finally, there was a tool for transformation, which in this article, the writer is looking for an etymological research in the theological dimension and Stoic existence. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_735301.html aidos (shame) and Arete (virtue) are among the most fundamental ethical concepts in the works of ancient Greek thinkers, especially Aristotle's moral philosophy; Concepts such as shame, humility, respect, chastity, are among the terms related to the translation of aidos, among which the concept of shame is the definition that Aristotle has of aidos. And the results obtained indicate that in his works (Nicomachean Ethics, Eudymosian Ethics and Oratory) Aristotle places aidos under the virtues, but in Nicomachean Ethics he mentions two arguments that are contrary to other parts of the treatise on aidos. And he does not consider aidos as a virtue and excludes it from the rule of golden moderation. In the first reason, Aristotle considered aidos to be more like emotions than moral properties, and in the second reason, he considers both virtues and aidos to be worthy of praise, but considered aidos to be exclusive to young people. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_735829.html Recent philosophical debates describe moral responsibility as being in crisis. This crisis is articulated through arguments claiming that responsibility collapses under metaphysical, normative, and psychological examination; agents lack ultimate self-determination, desert appears unjustifiable, and responsibility practices are said to rely on unrealistic, God-like conceptions of human agency. At the same time, contemporary philosophy is marked by an internal tension between the denial of responsibility and its expansion. It is simultaneously extended into the epistemic and doxastic domain, where agents are held responsible for ignorance, belief-formation, and epistemic conduct. The coexistence of collapse claims and the expansion of responsibility constitutes the core of the contemporary responsibility crisis. Through a comparative conceptual analysis, this study argues that the crisis arises not from any incoherence in moral responsibility itself, but from contingent philosophical assumptions about agency that demand total control, self-creation, or ideal epistemic access. Drawing on analytic accounts of epistemic responsibility, the paper defends a reconceptualization of responsibility grounded in diachronic non-ideal epistemic agency rather than metaphysical ultimacy. On this view, ignorance does not undermine responsibility but becomes one of its central sites. The paper concludes by turning to the Islamic philosophical tradition. Despite its Aristotelian foundations, this tradition exhibits no pressure toward responsibility collapse. By scaling responsibility to intention, rational governance, and finite human capacities, Islamic philosophers provide a stable account of moral responsibility, demonstrating that responsibility need not be absolute to remain coherent and defensible. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_735955.html This article offers a critical reexamination and analysis of Ustād ʿUbūdiyyat’s articulation of the theory of the correspondence between knowledge and the known within the framework of Sadrian philosophy (ḥikmat-i mutaʿāliyah). It aims to demonstrate that his interpretation of “ontological correspondence” and the doctrine of “real and gradational predication” (ḥaml ḥaqīqah wa raqīqah) in acquired knowledge suffers from significant philosophical and explanatory deficiencies. Drawing on the theory of the gradation of existence (tashkīk al-wujūd), Ustād ʿUbūdiyyat holds that knowledge occupies a higher ontological level than the known, and on this basis, he seeks to justify the ontological correspondence of knowledge and the known. This study first reconstructs and logically analyzes his central argument, then identifies several critical problems, including the weakness of the causal basis for correspondence, the inadequacy of his account in explaining non-material objects of knowledge, conceptual ambiguities surrounding real and gradational predication, the inability to account for the representation of individuating features of the known, and the inconsistency between his account of the merely conceptual status of quiddity (māhiyyah) and its supposed genuine representation. Ultimately, the article concludes that, despite Ustād ʿUbūdiyyat’s innovative effort to integrate Sadrian metaphysics with epistemological theory, his account fails to provide a comprehensive and coherent explanation of the reality of correspondence in acquired knowledge, owing to its insufficient scope and ontological shortcomings. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_735956.html Despite the wide range of philosophical discussions in the field of essence and its rulings, there is no coherent work on the criterion of the essence of objects, and such a question has not been raised in the texts of Islamic philosophy, while the words of philosophers on this subject are confused and contradictory, and no single criterion can be derived from it. "Possibility", "existence", "existential independence", "non-independence", "impossibility of knowledge" and "existential identity" are among the criteria that can be found in philosophical sources regarding the essence of objects. With the aim of discovering the criterion of the quiddity of things, the present article attempts to analyze the opinions of Islamic philosophers using a descriptive and analytical method and identify the origin of the difference, and then, by criticizing and examining these opinions and in the light of the philosophical thought of Allameh Tabataba'i, to reach a new opinion and criterion on this subject. The findings of this research show that quiddity is a false image, an illusion, and a valid subject that arises from the interaction of the mind and the object, and the criterion of the quiddity of things is the valid existence or the validity of existence. According to Mukhtar's theory, all levels of existence, including God, have quiddity. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_735957.html This study addresses the apparent conflict between humanity’s innate desire for pleasure and the restrictive framework of religious law (Sharia). Adoptaining an integrative approach and employing qualitative content analysis of philosophical and mystical texts, it argues that Sharia does not negate human nature but rather guides and elevates it. By genealogically tracing the concept of pleasure, the research examines key perspectives of Muslim philosophers and mystics, building on the theory of gradational existence (nasut, malakut, and jabarut). The central hypothesis posits that levels of pleasure correspond to degrees of immateriality, evolving from imperfection toward absolute perfection. Findings indicate that material pleasures are inherently transient and limited due to their dependency on matter. While pleasures of the imaginal realm are free from material impurities, they remain constrained by their representational forms. In contrast, intellectual pleasures, attained through union and annihilation in the Divine Essence, are defined as pure, unlimited, and free from imperfection. This coherent framework elucidates the relationship between levels of immateriality and degrees of pleasure, resolving the apparent tension between natural desires and religious injunctions. The outcomes of this research hold potential for application in fields such as spiritual therapy and moral philosophy. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_735958.html This article adopts a comparative and analytical approach to examine the concepts of solitude and communion within the ontological horizon of two major philosophers:Karl Jaspers, representing the existentialist tradition, andMulla Ṣadrā, representing the school of Transcendent Philosophy (al-ḥikmah almutaʿāliyah).Employing a descriptive–analytical method, the study focuses on the ontological and epistemological foundations of both systems. The findings reveal that, although both thinkers emphasize the formative value of solitude and the essential role of relationship in human transcendence, their divergent metaphysical premises lead to fundamentally different interpretations of the meaning, purpose, and function of these concepts. In Jaspers’s philosophy, solitude—experienced at the intra-personal, inter-personal, and existential levels—is an intrinsic and creative condition of human being-in-the-world, through which the individual attains authentic self-awareness in confrontation with the Other and the Transcendent. In contrast, in Ṣadrā’s Transcendent Philosophy, based on the doctrine of the unity of existence (waḥdat al-wujūd)—in its two readings of gradational (tashkīkī) and personal (shakhṣī) unity—any ontological separation between the human and the Divine is denied. In the gradational view, solitude signifies a deficiency of being overcome through substantial motion and divine knowledge; whereas in the personal unity view, solitude has no real existence and appears only through human heedlessness. Despite these differences, both philosophers regard solitude not as a merely negative condition but as a constitutive dimension of the human journey toward selfhood, the Other, and the Absolute. For Jaspers, the ultimate goal is existential freedom and authenticity; for Ṣadrā, it is divine proximity and the vision of ontological unity. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_735959.html The effect of music on human psychology has been a subject of interest for numerous thinkers throughout history. It is uncommon to encounter a scholar who has made impactful contributions in both philosophical and natural scientific domains as well as in musical theory. Ibn Sina recognized for his proficiency in medicine alongside his distinctive ontological views, has emerged as a significant figure among historical theorists of music. This descriptive-analytical research investigates Ibn Sina's perspective on the influence of music on the soul by analyzing his medical and philosophical writings. The results suggest that Ibn Sina’s understanding of music's impact on the psyche is fundamentally linked to his conceptualization of its origins. He posits that this origin is inherently biological and associated with the soul's intrinsic longing for connection with others to express thoughts and intentions. As individuals undergo spiritual development and transcendence, their capacity for emotional expression and interaction with other souls evolves into a means of conveying abstract concepts and rational ideas, ultimately fostering a relationship with both the active intellect and the general soul. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_735960.html David Benatar is one of the most prominent contemporary advocates of anti-natalism. His "Asymmetry Argument" is the central evidence of his defense of anti-natalism. According to this argument, the absence of harm is good, even if there is no one to benefit from this goodness. However, the absence of benefit is not bad unless there is someone who is deprived of it. Based on this premise, Benatar concludes that coming into existence is always a net harm because every person will inevitably experience harm in their life. Benatar's argument faces several problems: (1) The distinction between harm and benefit is unjustified, (2) alternative explanations with greater explanatory power are available, (3) proving the immorality of procreation requires a separate argument that is absent in Benatar's reasoning, (4) judging procreation must also take into account other human values such as "human dignity" and "the meaning of life," and (5) Benatar's argument relies on ethical utilitarianism, which is not necessarily the best moral theory. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_735961.html The main subject of this research is the analysis and criticism of the early and late Davidson's view on the explanation of action in a descriptive-analytical way. Donald Davidson, a famous American philosopher wrote the article "Action, Reason, Cause" in 1963, tried to defend the traditional theory about the explanation of the action, i.e. its causal explanation based on the reason of the agent. By categorizing the agent’s reasons in two categories, "belief" and "desire", he called it "primary reason". According to him, the "primary reason" not only makes the action of the agent rational, but it is also the cause of the action. Based on this, human actions can be formulated based on the model of Hempel's causal theory in the philosophy of science, and human actions can be explained under the necessary causal laws, and the role of the agent can be reduced to zero. Accordingly, any agent who has the belief and desire of the S will do the same action that S did. Despite the fact that in the contemporary period, Davidson is known as the revivalist of "causal explanation", the analytical-descriptive examination of Davidson's later works shows that he abandoned his initial position after encountering the problem of "deviant causal chains" and the famous example of the "climber”. After this, he has expressed his disappointment with the "causal explanation" of action under the necessary laws, which leads to the difference in the nature and method of human sciences and natural and experimental sciences. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_735962.html On one hand, the Darwinian biologist Richard Dawkins promotes atheism based on empirical science and adds natural selection as a third option to the creation-chance dichotomy. On the other hand, there are biologists who, despite accepting natural selection, believe in the existence of God and the option of creation. Thus, the question arises as to whether Dawkins is justified in denying the existence of God based on empirical science. In this research, the works of this scientist are reviewed using a library method and a descriptive-analytical approach, and it is concluded that Dawkins' claims are flawed in terms of validity due to his non-compliance with the rules governing research. In addition, he has confused the realm of empirical science and metaphysics, and his improbable argument based on materialism and God's complexity is ineffective. There is abundant parapsychological evidence and near-death experiences that point to the existence of an immaterial being, and metaphysical arguments for the existence of an immaterial, simple, and not complex, but rich and powerful God who designs and governs the universe. His cumulative process argument is also inadequate and, even if correct, is compatible with the existence of God, despite Dawkins' views. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_737185.html Abstract To better understand the relationship between ethics and politics in Emmanuel Levinas’s perspective, this study conducts a comparative analysis with Aristotle’s views. In Levinas’s philosophy, by explaining the intersection of “individual responsibility” and “social justice,” the fields of ethics and politics overlap. Levinas, with his unique formulation of ethics, grants it a central role as the first philosophy, basing politics on this particular view of ethics. Thus, justice and politics find meaning through the infinite responsibility of the individual. Aristotle includes both ethics and politics under practical wisdom (phronesis), considering human happiness as a political being (zoon politikon) in the polis, where the pursuit of the highest good (eudaimonia) in the virtuous city-state fosters the individual’s moral growth. This study aims to demonstrate “ethical politics” (politics based on infinite responsibility) in Levinas’s political views and demonstrates “political ethics” (ethics convergent with socio-political happiness) in Aristotle’s moral philosophy, while enumerating their commonalities and differences. The findings can initiate research for a deeper exploration of the ethics-politics nexus, promoting political teleology alongside moral refinement of society. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_737186.html From the perspective of Mulla Sadra, a human being is a composite of dimensions, and the identity of the immaterial dimensions is selfsame as the knowledge and reality of the material dimensions and selfsame as motion. He is successful in employing the principality and gradation of existence, the indivisible entity, the transformation of essences, etc. Mulla Sadra considers the immaterial dimension as an extension of the material dimension and pays attention to the distinctions between these two dimensions by comparing knowledge and perceptual forms. The adornment of perceptual forms from inner multiplicity, the connection of perception to the cognitive agent, the unity of similar perceptual forms in perceptive agents, its stability over time, the lack of overlap, etc., distinguish them from natural forms. Natural forms are constantly changing; two natural forms cannot be combined in one single object, and a single natural form cannot be obtained in two different objects. Recognizing Mulla Sadra’s ‘continuum’ and ‘distinct’ leads to the strength of anthropology, ethics, and teleology. He considers the distance between material and immaterial to be in the least difference between the two dimensions of a single identity. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_737251.html This article offers a philosophical reading of Sergio Quinzio’s thought as a radical interpretation of the crisis of contemporary humanity. Starting from the deferral of the Christian eschatological promise, it analyzes the erosion of the meaning of history and of the possibility of conceiving the future as a space of transformation. In Quinzio, the non-fulfillment of salvation does not constitute a theological anomaly, but rather the site in which the dramatic truth of historical experience emerges: the rupture between promise and fulfillment, between hope and despair. Through a reflection on the Cross, on the theme of failure, and on a critique of the dominant narratives of modernity, the article shows how Quinzio’s discourse situates faith as a potential bearer of an eminently critical function, preventing the present from being absolutized. Hope, deprived of any guarantee, thus takes shape as an experience of risk and as resistance to meaninglessness, making Quinzio’s thought relevant for a philosophical understanding of the anthropological and symbolic crisis of contemporaneity. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_737252.html Of twentieth century theologians, the Kurdish Said Nursi (1877-1960) has probably the largest influence on the Muslim community of today’s Türkiye. This is largely due to his creative application of the insights of classical Islamic philosophical theology to the twentieth century scientific picture of the world, in response to challenges modern science allegedly raises to the continued relevance of traditional religious belief. This paper will examine the ‘32nd Word,’ and ‘23rd Flash’ from Said Nursi’s (1877-1960) magnum opus, Risale-I Nur. First, we will review a parable Nursi uses to present his ‘second proof’ of God in the context of a modern “scientific” image of the Cosmos. Secondly, we will examine the metaphysical principles operative in the proof, showing that they are as applicable to the modern scientific paradigm of Nursi’s context, as they were to the Aristotelian paradigm of his predecessors in the classical period of Islamic theology. Finally, we will show how Nursi anticipates the ‘historical turn’ in the philosophy of science, pose the question whether the prospect of relativism it raises threatens his theological project, and propose an answer, based on Nursi’s text, which responds to a central theme in the story of modern philosophy. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_737253.html This article offers some notes toward a theory of the putative transactional nature of modern human relationships, especially as these relate to the academic and intellectual world. I consider first the nature of ontological and conceptual theses in order to situate my own within this broad division. I then take up the concept of metanarratives and the nature of human immersion within a given conceptual scheme. This leads to the suggestion that there is a transactional or commodity-driven paradigm operating at the level of human mental exchange. It is proposed that this reduction of human relations to the transactional is tied, at least in part, to the dominance of deductive reasoning and the a-historical approach to philosophical reflection and cultural analysis. The third, and now somewhat ignored mode of reasoning in Aristotle’s logical canon, dialectic, will be explored as a possible alternative to the dominant, winner-takes-all, deductive mode of reasoning. This mode of reasoning, it will be shown, is more suited to a communitarian approach to the pursuit of truth, which, in turn, may serve as an antidote to the dominance of the transactional in current human affairs. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_737254.html Proceeding through a series of scenes of injury, violence, and the collapse of the meaningful, the article offers an account of the post-redemptive nature of hope, despair, and futurity. Where redemption and moral improvement are proffered, hope instead becomes an ontological rift in the self, the world, and temporality (Kierkegaard; Nietzsche; Ricœur; Merleau-Ponty). In line with Veena Das, Elaine Scarry, and Judith Butler, the article then reconsiders despair in the ordinary life of an injured and precarious world, in which meaning gradually thins rather than breaks down. Drawing on Nietzsche, Weber, Camus, Matuštík and Tracy B. Strong, the article accounts for despair as an instance of the modern "scarcity of hope", where redemptive narratives are both ethically indecent and philosophically untenable. Adopting the position of responsibility, relational permanence and fragile world-binding (Levinas; Arendt; Nancy), the article shows how non-redemptive hope can align with despair against nihilism and consolation. The final sections develop an ethics of fragile futurity and a conception of political judgment that remain reflective and plural without metaphysical assurances, and ethical without political guarantees. It argues that this meaning and responsibility can remain after the collapse of redemption, but only if understood not as a question of triumph or restoration but of the fragility of continuing life in wounded worlds. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_737256.html Currently, Non-human animals have the popular identity of being regarded as food on the plate or tool for exploitation. In response, philosophers like Peter Singer and Tom Regan objected from the place sentience and entitlement to rights. However, this issue persists, where some scholars called the pretentious claim of change in practice to be a modification of their approach to exploit, which we consider, is due to the failure to emphasis on the ontology of these animals. Hence, this research paper aims to approach it from an African perspective of spirituality, particularly from the Yoruba worldview. To the Yoruba, the environment, just like humans, has its respective spirits, purposes, and relevance. It is not to be treated with disdain or abused. In the case of animals, they, in their traditional settings, have always treated animals with respect and reverence, considering their ontological being. Even if used for the purpose of consumption, or sacrifices, animals are treated with a certain dignity, and not just as meats, as against the unethical view of animals, most especially the consumable ones as mere foods on the plate. As a framework for ensuring the responsible consumption of animals in present time, this research paper presents the Yoruba approach to giving reverence to animals, which is well-documented in their folklores. It surveys how within the Yoruba settings animals are treated with dignity and reverence, considering their communal belonging, spiritual consciousness, and ecological relevance, all of which would contribute to the global walk to environmental sustainability. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_737260.html The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence has reignited fundamental philosophical questions concerning rationality and the nature of the human being. While contemporary AI systems increasingly exhibit behaviors traditionally associated with human intelligence, this convergence has obscured crucial ontological distinctions between human and algorithmic forms of rationality. This article offers a philosophical and ontological analysis of rationality as it transitions from a classical human-centered concept to an algorithmic framework embedded in artificial intelligence. Drawing on classical philosophy, contemporary AI theory, and critical perspectives in philosophy of technology and theology, the article argues that human rationality constitutes an existential mode of being rather than a mere functional capacity. Human rationality is inseparable from embodiment, lived experience, moral responsibility, and openness to meaning. By contrast, algorithmic rationality operates as a computational mode of operation, defined by optimization, prediction, and instrumental goal satisfaction, without access to phenomenological or ethical dimensions of existence. The central claim of this study is that the primary ontological risk posed by artificial intelligence does not lie in the possibility that machines may become human-like, but in the gradual redefinition of the human according to algorithmic standards of rationality. Such a reduction risks undermining the conceptual foundations of human dignity, agency, and responsibility. The article concludes that a robust ethical and theological engagement with artificial intelligence must be grounded in a renewed account of human ontology that resists the reduction of rationality to computation. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_737261.html This research undertakes a critical investigation of the ontological distinction between "Hope" and "Optimism" within the intellectual framework of Terry Eagleton. The central problem concerns the critique of the ideology of optimism as a neoliberal construct—one that, by denying the "Tragic" and erasing historical memory, reproduces subjective passivity in the face of structural catastrophes. Employing a descriptive-analytical method and a critical approach, this paper argues that by synthesizing radical Marxism with virtue theology, Eagleton formulates "Radical Hope" not as a mere psychological desire, but as a political praxis and a rational virtue that germinates only through the acceptance of failure and the traversal of the realm of catastrophe. The findings indicate that while Eagleton's thought faces challenges regarding its metaphysical foundations and cultural universality—revealing certain aporias in explaining the transcendent source of hope when compared to concepts such as Raja in Islamic Wisdom—his ability to shatter the idol of false optimism and reconstruct human agency in an "age of closure" remains undeniable. Ultimately, this article demonstrates that, according to Eagleton, "Hope without Optimism," grounded in moral stamina and fidelity to the excluded subjects of history, is the only path toward reclaiming human dignity and resisting global disasters. It is a hope that links activism not to the guarantee of victory, but to the truth of standing against the necessity of evil. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_737262.html The crisis of meaning in the present era is considered one of the most important challenges of human and social life, and paying attention to it from various angles can make a significant contribution to solving many of the individual and social problems of today's humanity. Therefore, in this article, with an interdisciplinary approach in philosophy and cognitive linguistics, and with a descriptive-analytical method, we examine and rethink the issue of the crisis of meaning. From Salmon's perspective in philosophy, the question of the meaning of life requires a metaphor, in which man sees himself as having a specific role, this perspective is the determining factor of human life. On the other hand, Lakoff and Johnson believe that conceptual metaphors, beyond a linguistic tool, shape the structure of thought, perception, and action. The connection of these two theories caused us to examine and review the issue of the crisis of meaning from the perspective of the crisis in the dominant metaphors in life. From this perspective, the crisis of meaning is the inability of dominant metaphors to organize the experience of the world, when previous metaphors are unable to make sense of suffering, death, hope, the future, or moral action. Therefore, overcoming the crisis requires the creation or revival of new metaphors that can make new experiences understandable. This requires examining the context of the crisis of meaning in dominant metaphors, and the prevalence of dark metaphors, and then considering the requirements for overcoming this crisis with new metaphors. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_737263.html This paper examines modern technology not merely as a collection of tools and processes but as a philosophical problem concerning the nature, value, and existential orientation of humankind. The study aims to reconstruct a coherent conceptual framework for analyzing four principal responses to technology—resistance, critical passivity, reform and substitution, and support and advancement—and to evaluate them in light of three fundamental propositions: (1) the overall harmfulness of modern technology, (2) whether technological harms are intrinsic or incidental, and (3) the human possibility of resisting technological expansion. The methodology combines conceptual analysis, argumentative evaluation, and comparative study of major contemporary positions, focusing especially on representative thinkers such as Martin Heidegger,, Andrew Feenberg, Theodore Kaczynski, Ray Kurzweil, and proponents of traditionalist schools. The findings indicate that each of the four approaches rests upon a distinct set of philosophical and value-laden assumptions, and that the proposed tripartite criterion enables a more precise differentiation of technological policies. Furthermore, the study argues that the deepest divergences stem from competing conceptions of the autonomous human being and its relation to nature and the technical order. In conclusion, the paper proposes the conceptual and ethical conditions necessary for a potential rapprochement among these perspectives and outlines the research requirements for developing a reliable medium-term strategy toward technology. https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_737264.html In the contemporary technological milieu—marked by the rise of artificial intelligence, biotechnology, and digital embodiment—moral perception has undergone a subtle yet profound transformation. The crisis of our time does not arise from ignorance of ethical principles but from an erosion of aesthetic responsiveness to suffering, vulnerability, and imperfection. This paper argues that a renewed philosophical reflection on ugliness can provide a pathway toward restoring moral sensibility in the age of artificial humanity. Drawing upon critical and postmodern aesthetics and recent typological distinctions of ugliness, the study contends that the experience of the ugly—when artistically and interpretively mediated—functions as a site of ethical revelation. Through hermeneutic and conceptual analysis of selected artworks by Francis Bacon, Lucian Freud, Stelarc, and Eduardo Kac, as well as contemporary AI-generated grotesques, the paper demonstrates how aesthetic dissonance can reactivate moral attention that technological perfection tends to anesthetize. Ugliness, in this sense, is not merely the negation of beauty but a moral event that disrupts perceptual complacency and summons the viewer to ethical reflection on the boundaries of humanity. By linking the aesthetics of ugliness with the moral crisis of artificial humanity, the article offers a novel framework for understanding how art can cultivate moral imagination under posthuman conditions. The conclusion highlights the ethical and pedagogical implications of confronting aesthetic negativity in both Iranian and global contexts, suggesting that the courage to face the ugly may be the last refuge of moral life in an age of artificial beauty.